Decorative Techniques

Fabrics usually need to be washed, bleached and dyed before they are made into textile products. Garments are assembled using various joining techniques including sewing, fusing and heat-sealing. Finishing improves the appearance, handle and performance of fabrics, while pressing is used to shape and stabilise fabrics.

Dyeing and Printing

Before dyeing and printing the fabric is prepared by washing, bleaching and mercerising, in which the yarn is treated to improve strength, lustre and receptivity to dye. Fabrics can be dyed by hand or by machine.

Hand dyeing

In hand dyeing, fabrics are immersed in hot or cold dyes in a dye bath. The dye bath is agitated so the dye reaches all areas. When the desired colour is achieved the fabric is removed and rinsed to remove excess dye. Then it is fixed with a mordant or a fixing agent such as salt. The strength of a dye colour is determined by the:

• amount of time in the dye bath
• absorbency of fibres
• original fabric colour
• concentration of the dye colour in the dye bath
• effective use of a mordant or fixative

Commercial dyeing- In industrial production fabric is dyed by continuous or batch dyeing.

Continuous dyeing -The fabric is passed through a dye bath, and then squeezed between rollers to spread the dye evenly and remove excess. Continuous dyeing is used for colours that do not need to change too quickly with fashion.

Batch dyeing -Fabrics are produced without dye. Instead, they are dyed to order in large batches according to the colours required. Batch dyeing is used for fabrics that have to change in colour frequently because of fashion.

Printing -Fabrics is printed by block or screen printing.

Block printing - Block printing is done using metal or wooden blocks, one for each colour. The background shapes are cut away to leave a raised design on the block. Dye is applied and stamped onto the fabric. This is a slow process used by specialised craft industries.

Screen printing - In screen printing a pattern is printed onto fabric through a stencil held in place by a screen. Each screen prints one part of the design in one colour. After printing the dyestuff must be fixed using steam or dry heat.

Manual flat-bed screen printing - Manual flat-bed screen printing is a slow process, done by hand. It is used by designer-makers for complicated fabric designs or for small runs.

• Mesh is stapled to a frame to make a screen.
• Masking tape is stuck to the underside of the screen.
• A stencil is made from paper.
• The stencil is placed under the screen but on top of the paper.
• Ink is poured at one end of screen.
• A squeegee is used to press down and draw ink across screen.
• The screen is carefully lifted.
• The print is checked before the process is repeated.

Industrial flat-bed screen printing - Industrial flat-bed printing automates this process, with the fabric moved through the machine on a conveyor belt and the print repeating rapidly.

Rotary screen printing - Rotary screen printing uses CAD and roller squeegees. One roller is used for each colour. This is a very fast process used in the continuous printing of furnishing and clothing fabrics.

 

Joining

Textile materials are joined by stitching, fusing or heat-sealing.

Stitching - Stitching two fabrics together produces an unfinished seam. Finishing the seam prevents fraying and produces a hard-wearing, neat finish.

Fusing - Fusing is used to permanently join two fabrics together using an adhesive resin.

• Fusing by hand is used to join Vilene to fabric to make it stable and strong. It is also used to reinforce and strengthen fabrics for garments, bags and accessories and allows hems to be turned up without stitching.
• In a factory there are two types of machine used for fusing. A flat-bed press is used to join short fabric lengths for batch production, and a conveyor press is used for fusing long fabric lengths for mass production.

Heat-sealing - Heat-sealing is used for synthetic fibres made from thermoplastics, such as polyester or nylon. It is used to set a material into a shape, e.g. pleats. It is also use to seal the seams on tents and all-weather gear to make them waterproof.

Fastening and Components

Fastening and Components

Textile products are made not only from fabrics but also from a variety of components and fastening. The main purpose of this is to enhance the products style and performance.

Type of fastening	Typical end-use
Polyester button	Shirts, blouses and underwear
Nylon buttons	Coats and jackets, sports and leisurewear
Metal buttons	Blazers, jeans and knitted waistcoats
Leather buttons	Sports jackets and knitted cardigans
Wooden buttons	Knitted and sports garments
Mother of pearl buttons	Women’s outerwear and underwear
Plastic zip fastener	Lightweight and fine fabrics used in garments and household products
Metal zip fastener	Sports goods
Single and double-sided zips	Leisure and sports products
Nylon Velcro	A range of fashion garments, sports and leisure goods
Metal hooks and eyes	Trousers and skirts
Metal or plastic press studs	A range of garments and household goods
Metal, leather or plastic buckles	Belts and clasps

Finishes

All fabrics used in products will have been ‘finished’ in some way to make them suitable for their end use. Good finishing can greatly improve the aesthetic and functional properties of fabrics, enhancing their handle, drape and aftercare properties.

Finishing process	Example of how finishing benefits fabrics
Physical finishing processes use heat, pressure or steam and machine processes.	Cotton or nylon is brushed (or ‘raised’) to give a soft, warm handle. Wool fabrics are shrunk to make them compact and to reduce further shrinking.
Chemical finishing processes involve the use of chemicals, which can cause environmental damage.	Viscose fabrics may be given an easy-care treatment. Silk ties can be Teflon coated to make them stain resistant.
Biological finishing processes involve the use of natural enzymes, such as those used in biostoning denim, which causes little environmental damage.	Most denim products in Europe are biostoned. This is less expensive than traditional stonewashing and reduces damage to the fabric.
Dyeing and printing involve the use of chemicals to enhance the aesthetic characteristics of textiles.	Most fabrics are dyed to improve the aesthetic characteristics and to make them fashionable. Printing makes fabrics attractive to the target market.
Decorative and stitch techniques.	Appliqué and embroidery add to the style of the product.

Textile products are also finished as part of a quality assurance process. Product finishing ensures that the product is fault-free, clean and matches specifications. Finishing improves the properties and quality of the product, and can be:

• Aesthetic, like pressing to improve the ease of manufacture. Final pressing improves presentation of the product.
• Decorative, like applying logos, braid or fringing to add to the style of image of the product.
• Functional, like self-finishing seams by over locking to improve the product quality.

Finishing -

 Finishing is done to improve the appearance, properties and quality of a product. It covers many different processes, some mechanical and some chemical.

Mechanical finishing processes -

 Mechanical finishing uses heat, pressure and rollers to improve the appearance of the fabric.

Brushing -

 Brushing cotton or nylon fabrics makes them fluffy and warm, with a soft handle. The fabrics pass through rollers with wire brushes that lift the fibres to form a nap.

Calendaring -

 Calendaring is the industrial equivalent of ironing. It smoothes the fabric and improves its lustre. Engraved calendar rollers are used to emboss relief patterns on the fabric surface.

Heat-setting - 

 Heat-setting is used for thermoplastic fabrics (polyester and nylon). The fabrics are set in permanent shapes or pleats.

Chemical finishing processes -

 Chemical finishing involves the application of chemical solutions or resins to improve the appearance, handle or performance of a fabric.

Bleaching -

 Cotton and synthetic fabrics are bleached before dying. This makes it easier to dye pastel shades.

Mercerising -

 Cotton or linen fabrics are mercerised using the alkali caustic soda. Mercerised fabrics are stronger, dye well and have improved lustre.

Shrink resist -

 Wool can be given a shrink-resist finish using silicone or Teflon. This results in soft, smooth, lustrous yarns and fabrics that are machine washable.

Crease resist -

 Cotton and viscose fabrics are given a crease-resistant finish using resin. This makes them easy care. They dry fast and smooth and need little ironing.

Flame resistant -

 Children's nightwear and cotton/viscose furnishings must by law be given a flame-resistant finish. This often makes the fabric stiffer and weaker.

Smart finishes -

 These are new, high-tech methods for finishing products.

Anti-bacterial finishes -

 Anti-bacterial finishes are applied to the fabric surface to slow down the growth of bacteria. They control odours in sports shoes and reduce infection in medical products.

Coating -  

Coating involves applying a layer of polymer to the surface of the fabric. Teflon coating makes fabrics stain resistant, water repellent and breathable

Biological finishes - 

 Biological finishes use natural enzymes to change a fabric's appearance. Bio-stoning gives a stone-washed finish to denim fabrics.

Thermochromatic finishes - 

 Thermochromatic substances change colour due to a change in temperature.

Manufactured Fibres

Natural polymers		Synthetic polymers		Inorganic
Regenerated cellulose	Viscose modal	Polyvinyl	Acrylic	Carbon	Carbon fibre
Cellulose ester	Acetate	Chlorofibre	Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)	glass	Glass fibre
latex	Rubber	Polyurethane	Elastane	Metallic	Metal fibres
		Fluorofibre	Teflon	ceramic	Ceramic fibres
		Polyamide	Nylon
		polyester	polyester

Viscose:

• Natural cellulose from wood pulp from pine or eucalyptus trees
• Produced as staple and filament yarns
• More absorbent than cotton, non-static because it always contains some moisture
• Naturally breathable, absorbing 14% of water vapour
• Fine, with soft handle and good drape
• Low ability to trap air – low warmth
• Lower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton, can tear when wet
• Poor elasticity, so creases easily
• Dyes and prints to bright colours
• Shrinks
• Biodegradable and recyclable
• Inexpensive to produce
• Synthetic resin treatment – to reduce creasing and shrinkage although absorbency is reduced
• Wide range of finishes can be applied – such as textures and crimps
• Typically blended with cotton, linen, wool, polyester and Elastane
• Filament viscose produces lustrous and crepe fabrics
• Staple viscose produces cotton, linen and wool-type fabrics
• End uses include curtains, shirts, dresses, lingerie, ribbons and trimmings
• Washable, do not bleach, easy to iron, can be dry-cleaned but not tumble dried

Modal:

• Natural cellulose from wood pulp
• Produced mainly as staple fibre
• Mainly used in blends
• Absorbs up to 50% more moisture than cotton, non-static because it always contains some moisture
• Naturally breathable
• Silky, smooth, very soft handle and good drape
• Low ability to trap air – low warmth
• Lower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton
• Poor elasticity, so creases easily
• Dyes to brilliant colours
• Shrinks less than viscose
• Biodegradable and recyclable
• Inexpensive to produce
• Synthetic resin treatment – to reduce creasing and shrinkage, although absorbency is reduced
• Wide range of finishes can be applied such as textures and crimps
• Typically blended with cotton, polyester, wool silk and Elastane
• Lustrous fabrics, blended knitted and woven fabrics
• End uses include bed and table linen, terry towelling, shirts, jumpers, socks, nightwear, jackets, sports and active wear and soft denim
• Washable, do not bleach, easy to iron, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried

Acetate:

• Cotton cellulose and acetic acid
• 95% of the acetic acid can be recycled
• Produced as filaments and microfibers
• Low absorbency, fast drying, prone to static
• Naturally breathable
• Subdued lustre, smooth, very soft handle with elegant drape
• Low warmth, dyes well
• More elastic than viscose but creases easily
• Thermoplastic, sensitive to dry heat
• Biodegradable and recyclable
• Inexpensive to produce
• End uses include, silk type fabrics for eveningwear etc, microfiber performance fabrics and embroidery yarns, ribbons and trimmings
• Typically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for summer fabrics, polyester and Elastane

Rubber:

• Natural rubber is made from latex, although synthetic rubber from petrochemicals is mainly used today. Its natural stretch and pliability have made rubber useful for flooring, waterproof coverings, types and Wellington boots. In the past, rubber yarns were used to provide stretch in swimwear and underwear. Rubber can be printed onto garments and accessories and can be used as moulded hoods and pockets. It can also be applied to specific areas of a product, such as the fingers of work gloves. Natural rubber is:
  • Warm pliable and soft
  • Antistatic, antibacterial and anti-slip
  • Sensitive to light, oils, solvents or grease
  • Not breathable, so ventilation is needed
  • Joined by stitching or adhesives
  • recyclable

Acrylic:

• sourced from petrochemicals
• inexpensive to manufacture
• can be manufactured as filament of spun fibres
• can be spun as microfibers
• low absorbance, fast drying, prone to static
• good strength, crease-resistant
• soft wool-like handle with good drape
• warm, easy care
• thermoplastic, sensitive to steam and heat, can result in shrinkage
• non-renewable resource
• typically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for summer fabrics, polyester or Elastane

PVC:

• Sourced from petrochemicals
• Manufacture uses chlorine
• Can be manufactured as filament or spun fibres
• Can be manufactured as a coating
• Strong, flexible, durable
• Breathable, easy care and waterproof
• Provides good insulation
• Thermoplastic
• Non-renewable resource, although PVC bottles can be recycled
• Spun fibres always blended with other fibres including cotton, linen, viscose, modal, wool and silk

Elastane:

• Sourced from petrochemicals
• Made from segmented polyurethane
• Composed of soft, flexible segments bonded with hard, rigid segments
• Elastane yarn is always covered by another yarn
• Inbuilt capacity to stretch up to 7 times original length, then recover when tension is released
• Provides lively, supple fabric with enhanced drape
• Adds comfort, softness and crease-resistance
• Improves body-shaping and shape retention
• Can be engineered to provide precise combination of yarn thickness, texture, brightness and stretch performance to suit the end use of fabric or garment
• For example can provide chlorine resistance and comfort in swimwear, lasting fit in leather, washable and crease resistant linen
• Absorbent, dyes well, easy care
• Non-renewable resource
• Elastane fibres are always combined with other fibres, natural or synthetic. Common blends include maximum 20% for swimwear, 15% for hosiery, 2-5% jersey fabrics, 2% for woven fabrics and 1% for flat knits

PTFE:

• Sourced from petrochemicals
• Synthetic polymer used mainly as a coating
• Flexible, durable
• Breathable, easy care, hardly dyes
• Water repellent, oil, chemical and stain resistant, windproof
• Water-based, CFC-free, doesn’t harm the environment
• Non-renewable resource, degrades slowly
• Used to protect all fibres and leather

Nylon:

• Sourced from petrochemicals
• Inexpensive to manufacture and produced as textured filament, staple fibres and microfibers
• Can be engineered to provide a wide range of properties and characteristics
• Non-absorbent and prone to static; textured filaments transport moisture away from the body
• Fineness ranges from microfibers to coarse fibres – can be fine and soft or firm, depending on fibre fineness, fabric construction and finishing
• Flat filaments trap little air so are cool; textured filaments trap air so provide warmth
• Very strong, excellent abrasion resistance, tear resistance and durability
• Windproof, hydrophobic, water-repellent, easy care, lightweight, flammable, soft, good drape
• Good elasticity, so good crease recovery
• Thermoplastic, can be textured and heat set, sensitive to dry heat
• Can be engineered to provide breathable comfort
• Dyes well, yellows and loses strength with long exposure to sunlight
• Resistant to alkalis, solvents, mildew and fungus, but degraded by concentrated acids
• Non-renewable source, non bio-degradable
• Anti-static treatment
• flame-resist treatment
• Wide range of treatments to engineer specific properties
• Typically blended with wool, cotton, linen, silk and other synthetics
• Textured filament fabrics, staple fibre fabrics and microfiber fabrics
• End uses include, carpets, curtains, tights, underwear, socks, active sportswear, all weather wear, fleece, tents, clothing

Polyester:

• Sourced from petrochemicals
• The most used and versatile synthetic fibre
• Inexpensive to manufacture
• About 60% produced as staple fibres
• Also produced as textured filaments and microfibers
• Can be engineered to provide a wide variety of properties and characteristics
• Non-absorbent and very prone to static; textured filaments transport moisture away from the body
• Fineness ranges from microfibers to coarse fibres – can be fine and soft or firm, depending on fibre fineness, fabric construction and finishing
• Flat filaments trap little air so are cool, textured filaments trap air so provide warmth
• Very strong, excellent abrasion resistance, tear resistance and durability
• Windproof, hydrophobic, water-repellent, easy-care, lightweight, good heat resistance, soft, good drape
• Very good elasticity so very good crease resistance
• Thermoplastic, can be textures, bulked and heat set, sensitive to dry heat
• Can be engineered to prove breathable comfort
• Dyes well, yellows and loses strength with long exposure to sunlight
• Resistant to acids, alkalis, solvents, mildew and fungus, but attacked by concentrated acids
• Non-renewable source
• Can be recycled – 25 PET bottles makes one jumper!
• Anti-static treatments
• Flame-resist treatment for interiors end use
• Wide range of treatments to engineer specific properties
• Some PET fabrics can be laser cut and heat welded
• Filament fibres usually textures
• Staple fibres are blended with wool, cotton, viscose, modal, linen and silk
• Staple fibre fabrics, textured filament fabrics, microfiber fabrics
• End uses include furnishings, upholstery, carpets, bedding, children’s nightwear and transport textiles, garments, ties, scarves, rainwear, linings, net curtains, sports and leisure wear, all weather wear, microfiber fleece garments, work wear, 100% staple yarn sewing thread, wadding for duvets and pillows, medical textiles such as artificial ligaments
• Machine washable, launders well at low temperatures, do not bleach, fast drying, iron with some care, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried

Natural Fibres

Vegetable Fibres (cellulose)		Animal Fibres (protein)		Mineral Fibres
Seed	Cotton	Wool	Wool	Silicate	Asbestos
Stem	Linen (flax)	Fine hair	Cashmere Mohair
Leaf	Sisal	Silk	Cultivated Wild

Cotton:

• Natural cellulose from the seed of the cotton plant
• Produced as staple fibre
• Absorbs up to 65% of weight without dripping
• Non-static because it always contains some moisture
• Naturally breathable
• Soft handle, good drape, dries slowly
• Good strength, abrasion resistance and durability
• Poor elasticity, so creases easily
• Biodegradable and recyclable
• Mercerising – for higher strength and lustre
• Synthetic resin treatment – for non-iron/crease-resist finish (dries faster but gives reduced strength and absorption)
• Stain-resist finishes using Teflon or silicone
• Flame-retardant finish – using the Proban process
• Typically blended with polyester, polyamide, viscose, modal, Elastane.
• Common blend ratios – 50/50 60/40 70/30
• Typical cotton fabrics include, calico, corduroy, denim, gingham, drill, terry towelling
• Typical end uses include household linen, curtains and towels, shirts, underwear, trousers and jeans, work wear, awnings and sewing thread.
• Washable, can be boiled and bleached, dries slowly, best ironed damp, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried (may shrink)

Linen:

• Natural cellulose from the stem of the flax plant
• Produced as staple fibres
• Strong, durable, long lasting, smooth surface, good drape
• Highly absorbent, fast drying, fresh and cool to wear
• Non-static because it always contains some moisture
• Crisp, firm handle, stiffer and harder than cotton
• Shrink proof, washes, irons and dyes well
• Low elasticity, so creases very badly
• Dirt-repellent, anti-microbial
• Biodegradable and recyclable
• Synthetic resin treatment – for crease-resist finish
• Stain-resist finishes using Teflon or silicone
• Typical blends include Linen 50% Cotton 50%, Linen 70% Nylon 25% Elastane 5%, Linen 70% Modal 30%, Linen 50% Cotton 46% Acrylic 4%.
• Typically blended with viscose, tencel, polyester and silk
• Typical linen fabrics include interlining, Holland (for window blinds)
• Typical end uses include, household linen, tablecloths, curtains, and tea towels, shirts, skirts, and suits, ropes, sewing thread and geotextiles
• Washable, can be boiled and bleached, quick drying, irons easily when damp, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried.

Sisal:

• This is a natural sustainable fibre, produced from the leaves of the agave cactus. Sisal is high strength, durable, easy to dye, water resistant, has good abrasion resistance, good anti-static properties and is fairly easy to keep clean. It is used for agricultural twines, ropes, hairbrush bristles, baskets and natural floor coverings, which can be blended with wool to make them softer and warmer.

Wool:

• Wool from the fleece of a sheep
• Produced as staple fibres
• Hydrophilic – can absorb of its weight in water without feeling wet
• Naturally breathable, rapidly absorbs moisture vapour
• Hydrophobic – repels raindrops
• Mostly non-static because if always contains some moisture
• Very soft or coarse handle, depending on fineness.
• Good drape
• Medium strength, not durable
• Smooth – can be cool
• Bulky – warm
• Inbuilt UV protection and fire-resistance
• At least 40% inbuilt natural stretch and elasticity – good crease resistance, creases drop out
• Bio-degradable and recyclable
• Machine washable wool – for woven’s and knitwear at 40°C, using the wool cycle and approved detergents
• Total Easy Care Wool – for woven’s and knitwear
• Silicon treatment – for weatherproofing
• Typical wool fabrics include ‘cool wool’, felt, herringbone, flannel, ‘sport wool’, tartan, tweed
• Typical end uses include blanket, carpets and upholstery, suits, jumpers, overcoats, sports garments, ties, scarves, hats and socks, industrial felts, agricultural blankets and geotextiles
• Washable (with care, unless easy finish), do not bleach, very slow drying, steam iron under a cloth or fabric goes shiny. Can be dry-cleaned. Do not tumble dry, dry in direct sunlight or over heat.

Cashmere:

• The fine under hair of the Kel goat from India, Mongolia and Iran, shorn once a year
• Produced as staple fibres
• One goat produces 200-250 grams per year (just enough for a scarf!)
• Two goats produce enough yarn for a 1-ply sweater
• It takes 24 goats to produce enough cashmere for a coat
• Soft, luxurious handle and appearance
• Light, lustrous
• Good thermal insulator
• Crease-resistant, dirt-repellent
• Non-static, fire-resistant
• Expensive due to limited supply
• Typically blended with wool, silk and polyester
• Expensive luxury fabric for coats, and suits
• Luxury knitwear
• Luxury interior textiles for cars, planes and yachts

Mohair:

• Hair of the angora goat, from Texas, South Africa, Turkey, shorn twice a year
• Produced as staple fibres
• Soft, silky, luxury handle and touch
• Good thermal insulator – 35% warmer than wool
• Durable, hardwearing – 10% stronger than wool, crease-resistant, dyes well
• Dust-repellent, fire-resistant
• Expensive due to limited supply
• Typically blended with wool, cotton and silk
• Expensive worsted fabrics for suiting
• Eveningwear
• Scarves and knitwear

Cultivated Silk:

• Silk fibres from the cocoon of the Mulberry silkworm
• Produced as filaments up to 1km in length and as spun silk
• Fine, smooth, lustrous, soft handle, elegant drape
• Elastic, fairly crease-resistant, creases drop out
• Can absorb up to of its weight in water without feeling wet
• Non-static because it always contains some moisture
• Strong, durable, light
• Cool, but a good insulator, so it also provides warmth
• Polyurethane coating – to make silk fabric waterproof
• Typical fabrics include chiffon, crepe, damask, satin, twill, voile
• End uses include, luxury day and evening wear, underwear, wadding for performance skiwear, racing bike tyre reinforcement, scarves, ties, hats, handbags, umbrellas, sewing and embroidery threads.
• Can be affected by perspiration causing it to rot. Wash carefully, do not bleach, iron on back of fabric, steam and water can leave stains, best to dry-clean, do not tumble dry or dry in direct sunlight

Wild Silk:

• Silk filament fibres from the cocoon of the wild Tussah silk moth
• Filaments ad spun silk
• Coarse, ‘rustic’, uneven, thicker fibre
• Harsh handle, heavier than cultivated silk
• Absorbent and non-static because it always contains some moisture
• Dyes to dark, dull colours, dull lustre
• More sensitive than cultivated silk to perspiration – could stain